Professor Kozlowski Lectures
Professor Kozlowski delivers lectures on various subjects in philosophy, theology, and the humanities. The podcast provides educational content on these topics, suitable for listeners interested in academic discussions. Additional information about courses and projects is available on his website.
Episodes
HBM - Nazism and the Occult
Today we discuss some of the most dangerous purveyors and practitioners of occult philosophy - Hitler's Nazis. Using the Extra History series on Nazi Occultism, Hitler's Monsters by Eric Kurlander (and its proof-of-concept essay), and several other perspectives by Umberto Eco, Dan Olson, and Lindsay Ellis, we'll discuss how the Nazi party grew out of pervasive unscientific and border-s
HBM - The Golden Dawn
Today we discuss the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the secret magical society that included such luminaries as W. B. Yeats, Dion Fortune, and Aleister Crowley, who went on to shape the twentieth century's perspective of magic, despite the organization imploding spectacularly after barely two decades of operation.Among our sources today are the Extra History video on Crowley and the Golden
Faust Scenes 20-28
Professor Kozlowski concludes his discussion of Goethe's Faust, Part One by discussing the fall of Gretchen/Margareta, and touching briefly on the conclusion of Faust, Part Two for the sake of closure. He managed to do all this without breaking into tears - this time.
HBM - Blake Into the 20th Century
Today we discuss the influence of William Blake on the 20th Century. By tracing the development of some of Blake's artistic choices, ideas, and themes through the 19th century and into the 20th, we will hopefully see how many of the preoccupations of William Blake, many of which were revolutionary or unusual in his work, would develop into commonplaces of our own time and culture.
HBM - Nietzsche and Romanticism
Today we tackle one of the most controversial figures in the history of philosophy, Friedrich Nietzsche. By examining his ideas in the prologue to Thus Spake Zarathustra, "The Four Great Errors" in Twilight of the Idols, and his thoughts on "Peoples and Countries" in Beyond Good and Evil, we hope to lay bare many of the preoccupations and assumptions of the late Romantic era, d
HBM - Blake the Prophet
CW: Poetic imagery of blood and gore, ravishing, and apocalyptic discussionToday we discuss the works of William Blake that don't usually make it into anthologies and undergraduate curricula - namely "America: A Prophecy," "The [First] Book of Urizen," and "Laocoon" (as well as one EXTREMELY popular poem from the deleted preface to "Milton: A Poem", and
HBM - Blake's Life, Times, and Songs
Today we kick off our discussion of William Blake with a little history catch-up, some discussion of his biography, and a [brief] analysis of the "Songs of Innocence and Experience," and the "Marriage of Heaven and Hell." We'll discuss Blake's religious perspective, his creative interpretation of Milton, and the ideas that will go on to influence Romanticism, magicians,
HBM - Pardise Lost 9-10
Today we finish our discussion of Milton's Paradise Lost with a close examination of Books 9-10. Along the way we'll look at Satan's last chance to make peace with God, his rhetorical strategies to convince Eve to fall, and Milton's relentlessly debilitating portrayal of Eve herself. It's rough, folks. We won't go on to examine Books 11-12, where Milton summarizes the rest
HBM - Paradise Lost 5-8
Today we wrestle with the whole of Raphael's digressions from the central plot of Paradise Lost - the war of the angels in heaven, Milton's recapitulation of Genesis 1 and 2, and some interesting side questions about the Renaissance controversies surrounding the nature of the cosmos, angelic diet and sexuality, and a big glaring theological muddle surrounding human sexuality.
HBM - Paradise Lost 3-5
Now that our discussion is officially behind our reading, let's take the opportunity to run through some of the main ideas in Books 3-5 of Paradise Lost, including Milton's (perhaps inconsistent) emphasis on human (and angelic) freedom, Satan's doubts, and the characterization of Eve, God, and Adam.
HBM - Renaissance Magic and Milton's War
Today we set out many of the topics we'll need to know in our ongoing study of British Magick - including the varieties of Magical practices common among Renaissance thinkers, some of the ideas of especially prominent Renaissance magicians, and the 17th-century British history surrounding John Milton and the writing of Paradise Lost.
HBM - Paradise Lost 1-2
Today we discuss the opening chapters of Milton's Paradise Lost, to ask ourselves: why do we find Satan so compelling in this poem? We'll discuss the reasons why Satan seems persuasive, as well as Milton's hints that Satan is not trustworthy - and why they don't seem to be sufficient.
HBM - Apocrypha and Pseudepigraphica
Today we get as close as we're going to get to reading actual magical grimoires and practical magic instruction - we're looking at three famous texts with differing relationships to the Judeo-Christian Canon and theology. Namely,1. The Book of Tobit, an Intertestimental book included in some Biblical traditions and not in others, about driving off a demon with some fish parts.2. The Apocry
HBM - The Story of the New Testament (Canon)
Today we discuss how the New Testament came to be: first, by looking at the historical evidences surrounding Jesus of Nazareth, then by examining the complicated and confusing world of writers and writings that emerged in the first centuries of Christianity's growth, then finally by looking at Constantine and Eusebius' efforts to codify Christian teaching, theology, and canon.
HBM - Magic and the Old Testament
Today we talk about the Old Testament's complicated relationship to magic. We'll discuss passages that seem to acknowledge the existence of magical or spiritual forces, familiar texts that are fertile ground for magical interpretations, and strange and esoteric prophecies that become the template for later would-be prophets and magicians.
HBM - Virgil, Rome, and Translation
Today we discuss the text, context, and legacy of Virgil's Aeneid. We'll talk about its role as the preeminent poem of Western literature, its value as propaganda to Augustus Caesar, and the myths and legends that shaped it. We'll also examine the changing face of religion and mythology in the Roman empire, as Christianity and Zoroastrianism supplant the pagan practices that predated t
HBM - Ancient Greek Mythology and Magic
Today we discuss Hesiod's Theogony and The Homeric Hymn to Demeter, not necessarily for the stories, but to understand how the Greeks conflate their understanding of magic, myth, religion, and history.
HBM - Logical Fallacies and Writing Technique
Today we take our first look at the study of nonsense with a discussion of logical fallacies - some familiar and well-worn, and some that I dare to invent and name like I'm a real bigshot scholar. We'll also talk about my expectations for good writing - which makes sense in a class about writing.Readings for today include "On Bullshit" by Harry Frankfurt and the Informal Fallacie
History of British Magick - Syllabus Lecture
Professor Kozlowski introduces his students to the ins and outs of his Studies in Arts and Humanities class for Fall of 2026.
History of British Magick - Introduction
At long last, we begin our study of British Magick with an introductory lecture about what you can expect from the series, our goals and parameters for the study, and how we will structure the lectures.So it begins.If you wish to be initiated into the greater mysteries of magickal thinking - or just want to support the show - please visit our Patreon!For more forays into the secret wisdom of art,
Propaganda in a Liberal Democracy
Today we discuss Jason Stanley's How Propaganda Works - a book I've been reading on-and-off since the History of Social Thought class, but which seems more important and relevant every day.Please support my work through PatreonCheck out our sister channel: Professor Kozlowski Lecture NotesAnd check out my other projects on my website
Professor Kozlowski Lecture NOTES?!
Shamelessly promoting our new paid sister channel, Professor Kozlowski Lecture Notes, where you can find our discussions of V for Vendetta, Watchmen, Sandman, and all the rest of our forthcoming research into "A Brief History of British Magick" and beyond.You can also listen along by joining the Patreon - paid patrons get access to all Notes recordings without paying for each lecture in
A Statement of Intent in 2026
Today Professor Kozlowski does some long-overdue housekeeping. We'll talk about our ambitions for the future, specifically our project on The History of British Magick for the summer of 2026, and how we might get paid doing it - as well as the usual pleas for Patreon subscriptions and other contributions. (Like, Share, Subscribe!)Please support my work through PatreonAnd check out my other pro
Biblical Politics - A Primer
The Bible is a long, difficult text with many apparent conflicts, especially when it comes to a believer's responsibilities to secular government. Here we will look at the seven most obvious models of political participation in the Bible, and try to reach a theology of Godly government.This lecture is intentionally brief (at least by Professor Kozlowski standards), in the interest of clarity a
Faust Scenes 10-19
Professor Kozlowski finally reaches plot development in Goethe's Faust, Part One. He discusses Margareta as a character, Faust's (and the audience's) relationship to her, and the looming sense of destruction hanging over everyone. What could go wrong?
Gatsby's party sucked.
Professor Kozlowski, introvert and buzzkill extraordinaire, poops on that most famous of lavish, extravagant parties: the one thrown by Gatsby in Chapter 3 of The Great Gatsby. A century of interpreters have mythologized this party as a symbol of doomed American innocence and romance - an innocence Hollywood and the Trump administration seem determined to re-create. Are we right to idolize the ric
History of Social Thought - Debrief
Professor Kozlowski wraps up his study of political philosophy by discussing the ups and downs of the project, summarizing some of the most important findings, and musing about the future (which will hopefully contain less Hobbes).If you're interested in Professor Kozlowski's other online projects or want to keep up with his work, visit his website: professorkozlowski.wordpress.comIf you w
Language and Propaganda
Professor Kozlowski concludes his series on political philosophy with a look at the nature of propaganda and its (often-unnoticed) effect on language. By examining the ideas of George Orwell's "Politics and the English Language," Harry Frankfurt's "On Bullshit," and Jason Stanley's How Propaganda Works, we aspire to reach a deeper understanding of how language can s
Place and Cosmopolitanism
Today Professor Kozlowski investigates a grab bag of other political perspectives, including the radical Utilitarianism of Peter Singer's "Famine, Affluence, and Morality," the Cosmopolitanism prescribed by Martha Nussbaum, and the Native American perspectives on land, community, and individuality discussed by V. F. Cordova and Ted Jojola in their writings. It may not add up to a cog
Care
The Ethics of Care presents one of the most cogent and effective alternatives to liberal government theory current today. It is revolutionary, empathetic, inclusive, and compelling. Today, Professor Kozlowski outlines the theory and practice of the Ethics of Care (as presented in Held's The Ethics of Care and Pirate Care by Graziano et al.) as a culmination of his discussions of liberal theory
Activism
Professor Kozlowski examines some of the most famous political activists of the twentieth century.Remember that all opinions expressed in this lecture are opinions, both for the speaker and the readings cited, and that you should trust the research, not the authority of the researcher.Today's readings include:Gandhi, Indian Home RuleFanon, The Wretched of the EarthMLK Jr., Letter from Birmingh
Communism and Anarchism
Professor Kozlowski continues testing the limits of algorithmic censorship with a discussion of Communism and Anarchism. No references to the Cookbook here, but we are going to look deeply at some widely varied ideas underlying Anarchist thought, and their justifications for fighting against the state, as well as the underpinning ideas of many 20th century activist movements (which we will discuss
Liberalism
Professor Kozlowski continues his idiotic life choices by reading and critiquing the neo-liberal political philosophy discussion surrounding John Rawls' A Theory of Justice. We'll talk about what Liberalism is, its dominance in the discussion of political philosophy, and its assumptions and blind spots - as well as just getting very frustrated by Nozick's particular brand of Libertaria
Fascism and Totalitarianism
Today, Professor Kozlowski tackles the preeminent development in political philosophy of the twentieth century - and spectre overhanging the twenty-first: Fascism and Totalitarianism. We'll examine Italian Fascism with Mussolini's own "The Doctrine of Fascism" as well as Umberto Eco's 2001 essay "Ur-Fascism"; Nazism with the Extra History video series Nazi Occultism
Conservatism
Professor Kozlowski invites the wrath of the Internet by proposing to discuss Conservatism. To do that, we'll explore the history of conservative thinking (and American Conservatism in particular) from Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France and Romanticism (including Nietzsche's perspective in On the Genealogy of Morals), to the 20th and 21st centuries. We'll touch on majo
Marx - Communism 101
The Communist Manifesto is one of the most influential and divisive works of political philosophy. Yet it almost seems quaint and harmless in a modern world of global Capitalist reach, and more rhetorical than scientific compared to the more systematic and explanatory Capital. Is Marx's theory of capitalist greed and social upheaval still relevant in a post Cold War world? Or is this a harmle
Marx - Capitalism 101
At long last, Professor Kozlowski tackles that most divisive of all political thinkers: Karl Marx. Today we'll talk about the legacy of Marx (especially in the USA), and take our first steps to understanding Marxist views of capitalism through Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations and excerpts from Marx's own Capital.Additional readings include: Weber's The Protestant Work Ethic and the S
PHIL 236 FA25 History of Social Thought Syllabus Lecture
Professor Kozlowski introduces his new course - History of Social Thought - with a lecture walking through the syllabus and describing the responsibilities and expectations of the course.
Mill - Utilitarianism and On Liberty
Today we confront the primary moral philosophy presented as a challenge to Kant's Deontology: Utilitarianism. We'll read Chapter 1 of Bentham's "An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation" as well as a sizable portion of Mill's On Liberty - which is remarkably NOT Utilitarian, and famous as one of the primary texts underlying contemporary Libertarianism.
Kant - Perpetual Peace and Deontology
Professor Kozlowski tackles the preeminent philosopher of Enlightenment philosophy: Immanuel Kant. In this lecture, we'll discuss the basic principles underlying Deontological Ethics (including an explanation of the Categorical Imperative), before moving on to appreciate the wry dark humor and cutting insights of his political essay "Perpetual Peace."Our readings include excerpts fro
The American Experiment
Professor Kozlowski finally reaches the American Experiment. Today we discuss the Declaration of Independence, several of the Federalist Papers (and the response by the mysterious "Brutus"), the American Constitution, and the legend of Hiawatha the Unifier*. Along the way we will discuss the current state of the American Experiment and how the decisions of the founders may have overlooke
Montesquieu and Rousseau
Professor Kozlowski tackles the French Enlightenment with excerpts from Montesquieu and Rousseau. The first is an orderly, encyclopedic thinker trying to categorize and classify every element of political philosophy; the second may well be a proto-Anarchist masquerading as an Enlightenment mainstay. Really, what were we expecting from the French?Readings today come from Montesquieu's The Spiri
Hobbes and Locke
In a fit of spite, Professor Kozlowski condenses his discussion of landmark British political philosophers Hobbes and Locke - forerunners of the American constitution - into a single joint lecture. We'll compare and contrast the two states of nature proposed by these thinkers, examine their divergent attitudes toward the authority of government, and root their philosophical conclusions in the
Machiavelli and the Muqaddimah
Professor Kozlowski ventures into the modern era of political philosophy with a look at two titans of early-Renaissance era political philosophy: Ibn Khaldun, the great Islamic historian and proto-sociologist/economist writing in the post-Mongol Invasion Abassid Caliphate, and Machiavelli, the political philosopher so famous that "Machiavellian" has become synonymous with pragmatic-to-th
Medieval Christian Political Philosophy
Today Professor Kozlowski takes on the political philosophy of the Medieval (and early modern) Christian world, as a cross-section of ideas and interpretations made by Christian political philosophers. Our readings for today hail from:City of God by Augustine of HippoSumma Theologica by Thomas Aquinas"Temporal Authority: To What Extent it Should be Obeyed" by Martin Luther (requires a fr
Politics and the Bible
Professor Kozlowski embarks on yet another discussion of politics and the Bible. Here we will look at the basic outline of the gospel, as well as key passages from Genesis, Deuteronomy, Judges, 1 Samuel, Matthew, Acts, and 1 Timothy that illuminate the Biblical perspective on politics and government - if there is one.https://www.biblegateway.com contains a wide variety of Biblical translations, in
Roman Political Philosophy
Today Professor Kozlowski takes on the Roman Empire - its legacy (historical and mythological), its organization, and the ideas of some of its most influential thinkers: Cicero and Polybius. Many great political thinkers take Rome as the closest thing to a perfect government ever created - hopefully we can reach some conclusions about what made Rome work, and why this obsession with Rome might be
Eastern Political Philosophy
Professor Kozlowski presents a woefully inadequate look at some key ideas in the political philosophy of China and India, specifically:Lao-Tzu's Tao Te ChingThe Analects of ConfuciusMo-TzuThe Laws of ManuAlong the way we'll talk about the differences between Eastern and Western attitudes toward virtue, rule, and government, as well as how these texts take on a very different perspective fr
Aristotle - Politics
CW: Slavery (but not racism); Tyrannical Tactics, w/ examples from Hitler, Stalin, etc.Today Professor Kozlowski turns from Plato's Republic to the other great masterpiece of Greek political philosophy - Aristotle's Politics. Typical of Aristotle, we'll discuss his basic assumptions about government, his understanding of different forms of government, and the ways that revolutions, de
Plato - Republic 5-10
CW: Incest, Infanticide, and Misogyny as philosophical ideas and historical realitiesProfessor Kozlowski tackles the rest of the Republic by ranging over the three excerpts in the Cohen textbook and several excluded passages. On the docket:Equality for women (yay!)Open marriages (yay!?)Communal child-rearing (wut?)Eugenics (boo!)The Allegory of the Cave (yay!)How governments fall apart (Aristotle
Plato - Republic 2-4
Professor Kozlowski tackles the origins of Plato's Republic proper - following Socrates as he describes the earliest organization of government through its growth into a "fevered" state of luxuries and wealth. And, bonus - we get a ten-minute tangent on the Laws of Lycurgus! - which influenced many ancient thinkers (including Plato and Aristotle) and will continue to haunt us for the
Plato - Republic 1
For the first reading in History of Social Thought, Professor Kozlowski *finally* tackles that greatest of philosophical classics: Plato's Republic. Today we'll look at the famous opening argument and get some preliminary answers to the question "What is Justice?" as well as Plato's practical example for dealing with Internet edgelords trying to win debates rather than unders
Intro to Social Thought
Professor Kozlowski embarks on a new scholastic project: preparing an introductory course on political philosophy for the fall semester. Several months and dozens of books later, he might not have much in the way of knowledge or answers, but he'll spend three hours talking about it anyway.Follow Professor Kozlowski's other projects online at his webpage: professorkozlowski.wordpress.comAnd
PHIL 143 Syllabus Lecture SU25
Professor Kozlowski welcomes his new students to the summer session of the Philosophy of Love and Friendship...with a two-hour long lecture about how the class is going to work.Enjoy!
Always Re-Reading: Catch-22
Today, apropos of nothing, Professor Kozlowski tackles one of his favorite books: Joseph Heller's popular, stylish, satirical masterpiece - Catch-22. We'll look at its legacy, its themes, and the message it offers to our own absurd systemic hellscape here in 2025. (And maybe one day we'll tackle some other favorite re-reads as well!)If you want more lectures like this, contribute to th
Medieval Europe
Professor Kozlowski, concluding his serious of insanely ambitious General Humanities I videos, attempts to cram the whole thousand-year history of Medieval Europe into ninety minutes.
Sir Orfeo and Sir Launfal
Professor Kozlowski concludes his General Humanities lecture series with an analysis of two Medieval lays - Sir Orfeo and Sir Launfal. Here we'll see how the Medieval writers adapt and understand the pagan traditions underlying their own culture as a part of their Christian faith.
Islam from a Dummy
Professor Kozlowski here expresses his very limited knowledge and very uninformed interpretation of the Qu'ran, especially as it pertains to Jews, Christians, and the afterlife. He then goes on to explore Ibn Sina's thoughts on the afterlife as presented in The Book of Healing.
None of this should be considered authoritative or rooted in expertise. Professor Kozlowski is absolutely still a
The Byzantine and Islamic Empires
Professor Kozlowski wanders well out of his comfort zone and scholarly experience to discuss the history of the two great powers of the medieval world: the Byzantine (Roman) Empire and the Islamicate World. He apologizes for the roughness of his knowledge and understanding, but hopes that he can help make this discussion a more integral part of the study of world history.
Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy
Today Professor Kozlowski tackles another favorite philosophical work in Boethius' The Consolation of Philosophy - a foundational text of medieval Christian philosophy and one of the most articulate discussions of virtue, the character of God, and the Problem of Evil in Christianity's history.
The Gospel of Matthew
Professor Kozlowski tackles the ethics of the Sermon on the Mount, the veiled allusions of the Kingdom of Heaven parables, and the moral quandary of identifying hypocrisy in the Gospel of Matthew.
Ecclesiastes
Professor Kozlowski takes a stab at unraveling one of the most famously knotty wisdom texts in the Old Testament: Ecclesiastes. Is it wisdom? Is it nihilism? Does it have a pat moral? Let's find out.
Judaism, Christianity, and the Fall of Rome
Professor Kozlowski tempts the wrath of the Internet by discussing the history of Judaism and Christianity by recounting the major events and themes of the Christian Bible. Along the way we'll revisit some important moments in ancient history, bump into some early Christian heresies, and talk about different perspectives on Christian teaching.
...hopefully without starting any flame wars...
Epictetus' Enchiridion
Professor Kozlowski tackles the classic of 2nd century stoicism, Epictetus' Enchiridion. Along the way we'll discuss the virtues (and vices) of stoicism, outline its similarities to Buddhism, and contextualize the stoics against the Roman political world in which it developed - and the contemporary world that it continues to influence and shape.
The Good Life of Plato and Aristotle
Professor Kozlowski somehow crams everything a General Humanities student needs to know about Plato and Aristotle into one hour-and-a-half-long lecture. Which is nonsense. Go read more Plato and Aristotle.
The Bronze Age Underworld
Professor Kozlowski takes on a triple threat of Bronze-Age(ish) underworld stories, namely: The Egyptian Book of the Dead, Inana's Descent to the Underworld (Sumerian), and the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Along the way, we'll try to make some sense and find patterns among these dense, difficult, and disparate texts, and set the foundation for the later Greek and Roman (and Christian) understa
From Prehistory to the Achaemenid Persian Empire
Professor Kozlowski kicks off his historical study in General Humanities I with a survey of the ancient Bronze Age cultures of the Near East (Babylon, Egypt, and Greece), as well as their legacies and inheritors in the wake of the Bronze Age Collapse.
Iliad 19, 22, 24, and Odyssey 11
Professor Kozlowski concludes his week-long analysis of Homer with an examination of Achilles through the last chapters of the Iliad and his reappearance in the Odyssey.
Iliad 1, 6, 9
Professor Kozlowski tackles the Iliad and Odyssey from a bird's eye perspective, looking at the trajectory of Achilles' rage and his missteps in the search for honor.
HUMN 201-04 SP25 Syllabus Lecture
Professor Kozlowski discusses the syllabus and expectations for the Spring 2025 section of General Humanities 1.
Pre-Pre-Socratic Philosophy
Professor Kozlowski kicks off his series on Pre-Socratic Philosophy with an examination of the forerunners to Pre-Socratic philosophy: Greek and Babylonian mythological traditions like Homer, Hesiod, and the Orphics; odd ducks like Pherecydes; and some questions about what does and does not constitute "philosophy" proper.
If you liked this lecture, please consider contributing to Professor Kozlows
Patreon and The Future (of PK Lectures)
Today we're talking about...money. A lot has happened in the past few months, and Professor Kozlowski Lectures has a very uncertain future. Today we'll discuss that uncertainty, what projects we hope to attempt in the next year, and what you can do to help that process.Specifically, contribute to the Patreon! - https://www.patreon.com/ProfessorKozlowskiOr go visit my website! - https://pro
Armchairs and Anarchists
Professor Kozlowski produces an odd, unfocused lecture for an odd, unfocused topic.
L&F SU24 Syllabus
Professor Kozlowski goes over the syllabus for the online Summer '24 session of Love and Friendship.
The Sorrows of Young Werther 2
CW: Suicide and Mental Illness
Professor Kozlowski concludes his discussion of Goethe's The Sufferings of Young Werther by examining the causes (and the effects) of Werther's death. Goethe's treatment of Werther's case is careful and multifaceted - we'll look at some of the different perspectives Goethe offers us for understanding why Werther kills himself, and how we should i
The Sorrows of Young Werther 1
CW: Mental Illness and Suicide
Professor Kozlowski discusses the first half of Goethe's The Sufferings of Young Werther, including character introductions, an examination of typically Romantic characteristics, and discussion of mental illness and suicide.
Plato's Symposium 4 - Alcibiades
Professor Kozlowski examines the final speech of Plato's Symposium and examines some of the *many* ways it might be interpreted as a contribution to Plato's understanding of love.
Plato's Symposium 3 - Socrates
At long last, it's time to hear Socrates' justly-famous theory of love.
Plato's Symposium 2 - Eryximachus, Aristophanes, Agathon
Professor Kozlowski takes on the justly famous speech-myth of Aristophanes and how it appeals to modern audiences. (Also Eryximachus and Agathon...)
Plato's Symposium 1 - Phaedrus and Pausanias
Professor Kozlowski discusses the opening and first two speeches of Plato's Symposium, examining not just the content of the speeches, but the context Plato offers to provide depth to the characters' understanding.
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